Preface xv
About the Author xix
1 Electrons, Photons, and Phonons
1.1 Selected Concepts of Quantum Mechanics
1.1.1 The dual nature of the photon
1.1.2 The dual nature of the electron
1.1.3 Electrons in confined environments
1.2 Selected Concepts of Statistical Mechanics
1.2.1 Thermal motion and thermal energy
1.2.2 Thermal equilibrium
1.2.3 Electron statistics
1.3 Selected Concepts of Solid-State Physics
1.3.1 Bonds and bands
1.3.2 Metals, insulators, and semiconductors
1.3.3 Density of states
1.3.4 Lattice vibrations: phonons
1.4 Summary
1.5 Further reading
Problems
2 Carrier Statistics in Equilibrium
2.1 Conduction and Valence Bands; Bandgap; Holes
2.2 Intrinsic Semiconductor
2.3 Extrinsic Semiconductor
2.3.1 Donors and acceptors
2.3.2 Charge neutrality
2.3.3 Equilibrium carrier concentration in a doped semiconductor
2.4 Carrier Statistics in Equilibrium
2.4.1 Conduction and valence band density of states
2.4.2 Equilibrium electron concentration
2.4.3 Equilibrium hole concentration
2.4.4 np product in equilibrium
2.4.5 Location of Fermi level
2.5 Summary
2.6 Further Reading
Problems
3 Carrier Generation and Recombination
3.1 Generation and Recombination Mechanisms
3.2 Thermal Equilibrium: Principle of Detailed Balance
3.3 Generation and Recombination Rates in Thermal Equilibrium
3.3.1 Band-to-band optical generation and recombination
3.3.2 Auger generation and recombination
3.3.3 Trap-assisted thermal generation and recombination
3.4 Generation and Recombination Rates Outside Equilibrium
3.4.1 Quasi-neutral low-level injection; recombination lifetime
3.4.2 Extraction; generation lifetime
3.5 Dynamics of Excess Carriers in Uniform Situations
3.5.1 Example 1: Turn-on transient
3.5.2 Example 2: Turn-off transient
3.5.3 Example 3: A pulse of light
3.6 Surface Generation and Recombination
3.7 Summary
3.8 Further Reading
Problems
4 Carrier Drift and Diffusion
4.1 Thermal Motion
4.1.1 Thermal velocity
4.1.2 Scattering
4.2 Drift
4.2.1 Drift velocity
4.2.2 Velocity saturation
4.2.3 Drift current
4.2.4 Energy band diagram under electric field
4.3 Diffusion
4.3.1 Fick’s first law
4.3.2 The Einstein relation
4.3.3 Diffusion current
4.4 Transit Time
4.5 Nonuniformly Doped Semiconductor in Thermal Equilibrium
4.5.1 Gauss’ law
4.5.2 The Boltzmann relations
4.5.3 Equilibrium carrier concentration
4.6 Quasi-Fermi Levels and Quasi-Equilibrium
4.7 Summary
4.8 Further Reading
Problems
5 Carrier Flow
5.1 Continuity Equations
5.2 Surface Continuity Equations
5.2.1 Free surface
5.2.2 Ohmic contact
5.3 Shockley Equations
5.4 Simplifications of Shockley Equations to One-Dimensional Quasi-Neutral
Situations
5.5 Majority-Carrier Situations
5.5.1 Example 1: Semiconductor bar under voltage
5.5.2 Example 2: Integrated resistor
5.6 Minority-Carrier Situations
5.6.1 Example 3: Diffusion and bulk recombination in a “long” bar
5.6.2 Example 4: Diffusion and surface recombination in a “short” bar
5.6.3 Length scales of minority carrier situations
5.7 Dynamics of Majority-Carrier Situations
5.8 Dynamics of Minority-Carrier Situations
5.8.1 Example 5: Transient in a bar with S = ∞
5.9 Transport in Space-Charge and High-Resistivity Regions
5.9.1 Example 6: Drift in a high-resistivity region under external
electric field
5.9.2 Comparison between SCR and QNR transport
5.10 Carrier Multiplication and Avalanche Breakdown
5.10.1 Example 7: Carrier multiplication in a high-resistivity region
with uniform electric field
5.11 Summary
5.12 Further Reading
Problems
6 PN Junction Diode
6.1 The Ideal PN Junction Diode
6.2 Ideal PN Junction in Thermal Equilibrium
6.3 Current–Voltage Characteristics of The Ideal PN Diode
6.3.1 Electrostatics under bias
6.3.2 I–V characteristics: qualitative discussion
6.3.3 I–V characteristics: quantitative models
6.4 Charge–Voltage Characteristics of Ideal PN Diode
6.4.1 Depletion charge
6.4.2 Minority carrier charge
6.5 Equivalent Circuit Models of The Ideal PN Diode
6.6 Nonideal and Second-Order Effects
6.6.1 Short diode
6.6.2 Space-charge generation and recombination
6.6.3 Series resistance
6.6.4 Breakdown voltage
6.6.5 Nonuniform doping distributions
6.6.6 High-injection effects
6.7 Integrated PN Diode
6.7.1 Isolation
6.7.2 Series resistance
6.7.3 High–low junction
6.8 Summary
6.9 Further Reading
Problem
7 Schottky Diode and Ohmic Contact
7.1 The Ideal Schottky Diode
7.2 Ideal Schottky Diode in Thermal Equilibrium
7.2.1 A simpler system: a metal–metal junction
7.2.2 Energy band lineup of metal–semiconductor junction
7.2.3 Electrostatics of metal–semiconductor junction in equilibrium
7.3 Current–Voltage Characteristics of Ideal Schottky Diode
7.3.1 Electrostatics under bias
7.3.2 I–V characteristics: qualitative discussion
7.3.3 I–V characteristics: thermionic emission model
7.4 Charge–Voltage Characteristics of Ideal Schottky Diode
7.5 Equivalent Circuit Models for The Ideal Schottky Diode
7.6 Nonideal and Second-Order Effects
7.6.1 Series resistance
7.6.2 Breakdown voltage
7.7 Integrated Schottky Diode
7.8 Ohmic Contacts
7.8.1 Lateral ohmic contact: transmission-line model
7.8.2 Boundary conditions imposed by ohmic contacts
7.9 Summary
7.10 Further Reading
Problems
8 The Si Surface and the Metal–OxideSemiconductor Structure
8.1 The Semiconductor Surface
8.2 The Ideal Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Structure
8.3 The Ideal Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Structure at Zero Bias
8.3.1 General relations for the electrostatics of the ideal MOS structure
8.3.2 Electrostatic of the MOS structure under zero bias
8.4 The Ideal Metal–Oxide Semiconductor Structure Under Bias
8.4.1 Depletion
8.4.2 Flatband
8.4.3 Accumulation
8.4.4 Threshold
8.4.5 Inversion
8.4.6 Summary of charge–voltage characteristics
8.5 Dynamics of The MOS Structure
8.5.1 Quasi-static C–V characteristics
8.5.2 High-frequency C–V characteristics
8.5.3 Deep depletion
8.6 Weak Inversion and The Subthreshold Regime
8.7 Three-Terminal MOS Structure
8.8 Summary
8.9 Further Reading
Problems
9 The “Long” Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor
9.1 The Ideal MOSFET
9.2 Qualitative Operation of The Ideal MOSFET
9.3 Inversion Layer Transport in The Ideal MOSFET
9.4 Current–Voltage Characteristics of The Ideal MOSFET
9.4.1 The cut-off regime
9.4.2 The linear regime
9.4.3 The saturation regime
9.4.4 DC large-signal equivalent-circuit model of ideal MOSFET
9.4.5 Energy band diagrams
9.5 Charge–Voltage Characteristics of The Ideal MOSFET
9.5.1 Depletion charge
9.5.2 Inversion charge
9.6 Small-Signal Behavior of Ideal MOSFET
9.6.1 Small-signal equivalent circuit model of ideal MOSFET
9.6.2 Short-circuit current-gain cut-off frequency, fT, of ideal MOSFET
in saturation
9.7 Nonideal Effects in MOSFET
9.7.1 Body effect
9.7.2 Effect of back bias
9.7.3 Channel-length modulation
9.7.4 The subthreshold regime
9.7.5 Source and drain resistance
9.8 Summary
9.9 Further Reading
Problems
10 The “Short” Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor
10.1 MOSFET Short-Channel Effects: Transport
10.1.1 Mobility degradation
10.1.2 Velocity saturation
10.2 MOSFET Short-Channel Effects: Electrostatics
10.2.1 Threshold voltage dependence on gate length: VT rolloff
10.2.2 Threshold voltage dependence on VDS: drain-induced barrier
lowering (DIBL)
10.2.3 Subthreshold swing dependence on gate length and VDS
10.3 MOSFET Short-Channel Effects: Gate Stack Scaling
10.3.1 Gate capacitance
10.3.2 Gate leakage current
10.4 MOSFET High-Field Effects
10.4.1 Electrostatics of velocity saturation region
10.4.2 Impact ionization and substrate current
10.4.3 Output conductance
10.4.4 Gate-induced drain leakage
10.5 MOSFET Scaling
10.5.1 The MOSFET as a switch
10.5.2 Constant field scaling of the ideal MOSFET
10.5.3 Constant voltage scaling of the ideal MOSFET
10.5.4 Generalized scaling of short MOSFETs
10.5.5 MOSFET scaling: a historical perspective
10.5.6 Evolution of MOSFET design
10.6 Summary
10.7 Further Reading
Problems
11 The Bipolar Junction Transistor
11.1 The Ideal BJT
11.2 Current–Voltage Characteristics of The Ideal BJT
11.2.1 The forward-active regime
11.2.2 The reverse regime
11.2.3 The cut-off regime
11.2.4 The saturation regime
11.2.5 Output I–V characteristics
11.3 Charge–Voltage Characteristics of Ideal BJT
11.3.1 Depletion charge
11.3.2 Minority carrier charge