An in-depth review of ice features and structural properties with latest advances in geophysical sensors, ice parameters retrieval techniques, and remote sensing data

The second edition of Sea Ice: Physics and Remote Sensing has been revised and updated to reflect the latest developments in geophysical sensors and ice parameters retrieval techniques. This volume addresses experiences acquired mainly in Canada by researchers in the fields of ice physics and growth history in relation to its polycrystalline structure as well as ice parameters retrieval from remote sensing observations. The volume describes processes operating at the macro- and microscale (e.g., brine entrapment in sea ice, crystallographic texture of ice types, brine drainage mechanisms, etc.). The information is supported by high-quality photographs of ice thin-sections prepared from cores of different ice types, all obtained by leading experts during field experiments using photographic cameras and scanning microscopy. In addition, this volume presents techniques to retrieve a suite of sea ice parameters (e.g. ice type, concentration, extent, thickness, surface temperature, surface deformation, etc.) from space-borne and airborne sensor data. The breadth of the material on this subject is designed to appeal to researchers and users of remote sensing data who want to develop quick familiarity with the capabilities of this technology or detailed knowledge about major techniques for retrieval of key ice parameters.

Mohammed Shokr is Research Scientist Emeritus at the Meteorological Research Division of Environment and Climate Change Canada. He is a member of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society and the CASI Canadian Remote Sensing Society.

Nirmal K. Sinha is Emeritus Scientist at the National Research Council of Canada.

PREFACE

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Ice Physics and Physical Processes
2.1 Initial Ice Formation
2.1.1 Relevant water properties
2.1.2 Water freezing mechanism
2.1.3 Initial ice crystals and frazil ice
2.2 Ice Growth
2.2.1 Lateral ice growth
2.2.2 Vertical ice growth
2.2.3 Superimposed ice
2.2.4 Thermodynamic Ice growth
2.2.5 Sources of uncertainty in the ice growth modeling
2.3 Inclusions in Ice
2.3.1 Compositional (constitutional) supercooling and brine pocket formation
2.3.2 Dendritic interface of sea ice
2.3.3 Salinity loss during ice growth
2.3.3.1 Initial rapid salt rejection at the ice-water interface
2.3.3.2 Subsequent slow salt rejection from the bulk ice
2.4 Ice Deformation
2.5 Ice Decay and Aging
2.6 Ice classes and ice regimes
2.6.1 Criteria of ice classification
2.6.2 Polynyas
2.6.3 Pancake ice regime
2.6.4 Ice edge and marginal ice zone
2.6.5 Ice of land origin

Chapter 3: Sea Ice Physical Properties
3.1 Temperature profiles in ice and snow
3.2 Bulk salinity and salinity profile
3.3 Density of first-year and multi-year ice
3.4 Volume fraction of sea ice constituents
3.5 Thermal properties
3.5.1 Thermal conductivity of sea ice
3.5.2 Thermal conductivity of snow
3.5.3 Specific heat of sea ice
3.5.4 Latent heat of fusion
3.6 Dielectric properties
3.6.1 Dielectric constant of brine
3.6.2 Dielectric mixing models
3.6.3 Field measurements of sea ice dielectric constant

Chapter 4: Polycrystalline Ice Structure
4.1 Terms and definitions relevant to polycrystalline ice
4.1.1 Special thermal state of natural ice
4.1.2 General terms for structural aspects of ice
4.1.3 Basic terms and definitions
4.2 Morphology of ice
4.2.1 Form of ice crystals
4.2.2 Miller Indices for hexagonal ice
4.2.3 Growth direction of ice crystals
4.2.4 Ice density in relation to crystalline structure
4.3 Crystallographic Classification of Natural Ice
4.3.1 Fresh-water ice classification of Michel and Ramseier
4.3.2 Extending crystallographic classification of fresh-water ice to sea ice
4.3.3 Crystallographic classes of natural ice
4.3.3.1 Granular or snow ice (T1 ice)
4.3.3.2 Randomly oriented (S4) and vertically oriented (S5) frazil ice
4.3.3.3 Columnar-grained with c-axis vertical (S1 ice)
4.3.3.4 Columnar-grained with c-axis horizontal and random (S2 ice)
4.3.3.5 Columnar-grained ice with c-axis horizontal and oriented (S3 ice)
4.3.3.6 Agglomerate ice with discontinuous columnar-grained (R ice type)
4.3.3.7 Ice of land-based origin
4.3.4 Stereographical projection (fabric diagram) of natural polycrystalline ice
4.4 Age-based structural features of natural sea ice
4.4.1 Young ice
4.4.2 First-Year ice
4.4.3 Multi-Year ice
4.5 Information contents in Polycrystalline Ice Structure
4.5.1 Geometric characteristics of crystalline structure
4.5.2 Geometric characteristics of brine pockets in first-year ice
4.5.3 Geometric characteristics of air bubbles
4.5.4 Biomass accumulation at the bottom of the ice

Chapter 5: Aging of Sea Ice: Stories that were Never Told
5.1 High Arctic & Mould Bay experiments: beginning of RADARSAT field project
5.1.1 Ageing in sea ice: transition from FY to MY ice
5.1.2 Ice conditions and parameters
5.1.3 Interface between Old and New ice in SY ice cover
5.1.4 Multi-year ice and interfaces: the Mould Bay 1984 experience
5. 2 High-Arctic ice islands and microwave remote sensing experience
5.2.1 Background history
5.2.2 Shelf ice and Arctic Ice Islands
5.2.3 Multi-Year rubble field of Arctic ice islands
5.2.4 RADARSAT images of Glaciers and Arctic ice islands

Chapter 6: Laboratory techniques for Revealing Structure of Polycrystalline Ice
6.1 Relevant optical properties
6.1.1 Fundamentals of polarized light
6.1.2 Birefringence of ice crystals
6.1.3 Optical retardation
6.1.4 Interference colours for white light
6.2 Ice thin sectioning techniques
6.2.1 Hot-plate technique for thin sectioning
6.2.2 Double-microtoming technique for thin sectioning of ice
6.2.3 Double-microtoming technique for thin sectioning of snow
6.2.4 Precautions for thin sectioning prepared using the DMT
6.2.5 Optimum thickness for thin sections of ice and snow
6.3 Viewing and photographing ice thin sections
6.3.1 Laboratory and hand-held polariscope
6.3.2 Cross-polarized versus parallel-polarized light viewing
6.3.3 Scattered light and combined cross-polarized/scattered light viewing
6.3.4 Circularly polarized light and rapid crystallographic analysis
6.4 Etching techniques
6.4.1 Sublimation of ice and Higuchi etch pits
6.4.2 Etching processes and applications
6.4.3 Thermal etching of microtomed ice surfaces
6.4.4 Chemical etching and replicating ice surfaces

Chapter 7: Remote Sensing Principles Relevant to Sea Ice
7.1 General Principles of satellite remote sensing
7.2 Electromagnetic wave properties and processes
7.2.1 Polarization and depolarization of EM wave
7.2.2 Reflection, transmission, absorption, scattering and emission
7.2.3 Brightness temperature and emissivity
7.2.4 Penetration depth
7.3 Optical sensing
7.4 Thermal infrared sensing
7.5 Microwave sensing
7.5.1 Passive microwave
7.5.2 Active microwave
7.5.2.1 Imaging radar principles
7.5.2.2 Multi-channel SAR
7.5.2.3 Radar polarimetry
7.6 Radiative processes in relevant media
7.6.1 Atmospheric influences
7.6.2 Sea water
7.6.3 Snow on sea: physical and radiative processes
7.6.3.1 Optical and thermal infrared regions
7.6.3.2 Microwave region

Chapter 8 Satellite sensors for sea ice observations
8.1 Historical synopsis of satellite remote sensing for sea ice
8.2 Passive microwave sensors
8.3 Imaging radar sensors
8.4 Scatterometers
8.5 Altimeters

Chapter 9: Radiometric and radar scattering observations from sea ice
9.1 Optical reflectance and albedo
9.2 Microwave brightness temperature data
9.3 Radar backscatter
9.3.1 Backscatter databases from ice types and open water
9.3.2 Effect of wind-roughened ocean surface on backscatter
9.3.3 Multi-polarization data of sea ice
9.4 Emissivity data in the microwave bands
9.5 Microwave penetration depth

Chapter 10: Retrieval of Sea Ice Surface Information
10.1 Surface deformation
10.2 Cracks and leads
10.3 Surface melt
10.4 Frost flowers

Chapter 11: Retrieval of Ice and Snow Geophysical Parameters
11.1 Ice type classification
11.1.1 Ice classification from optical and TIR systems
11.1.2 Ice classification from Microwave data
11.2 Ice concentration
11.2.1 Ice concentration from VIS and TIR images
11.2.2 Ice concentration from passive microwave observations
11.3 Sea ice extent and area
11.4 Ice thickness
11.5 Ice Surface temperature
11.6 Snow depth over sea ice
11.7 Ice motion

Chapter 12. Modeling microwave emission and scattering from snow-covered sea ice
12.1 Modeling brightness temperature emission
12.2 Modeling radar scattering
12.3 Validation of results against in situ data
12.4 Uncertainties in satellite microwave observations

Chapter 13: Sea Ice Service in Canada: History and Current Programs
13.1 History of Ice Service in Canada
13.2 The operational sea ice programs and products