| Preface |
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xiii | |
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From Start to Finish: The Big Picture |
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1 | (22) |
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Scientific writing begins where research does-with a question |
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1 | (4) |
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Keep the big picture in mind |
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Periodically assess research progress and direction |
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Organization is a journey, not a destination |
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Use many different search strategies |
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Make it easy to relocate relevant material |
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The message determines the medium |
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5 | (5) |
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What message do I want to convey? |
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Which format is most appropriate for my message? |
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Who will be most interested in my message? |
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Where should this paper be published? |
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Evaluate journal suitability and impact |
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Avoid salami-slicing science |
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Write and revise systematically |
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10 | (3) |
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Take charge with the Process Approach |
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Message, format, and audience |
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Keep tasks in perspective |
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Attention to detail: the ``final'' copy |
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13 | (3) |
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Double-check the accuracy of references and attributions |
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Give the paper its final in-house double review |
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Submit the typescript for publication |
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16 | (2) |
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Typescript, computer file, or both? |
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Include a cover letter with the typescript |
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Make at least three copies, and label everything |
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Package it carefully and mail it correctly |
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Back and forth: editorial review |
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18 | (2) |
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What happens at the editor's office: round one |
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Deal respectfully with reviewers' comments |
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What happens at the editor's office: round two |
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Correct galley proof conscientiously |
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20 | (3) |
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Mark corrections attentively |
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Enjoy the fruits of your labor |
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Scientific Writing In the Computer Age |
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23 | (30) |
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Conduct an efficient and thorough literature search |
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23 | (10) |
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Understand the strengths of different communication channels |
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Informal channels directly link researchers and literature sources |
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Formal channels involve third parties |
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Compilations are there to help-use them! |
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Consult research bibliographies and research registers |
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Locate and use reference databases and abstracting services |
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Consult citation indexes and Dissertation Abstracts |
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Learn to use keyword search terms and apply Boolean logic |
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Plan an effective search strategy |
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Handle search results wisely |
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Search strategy and Boolean logic |
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Use the Internet wisely and well |
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33 | (7) |
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Know how the Internet is structured |
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Learn the differences between subject directories and search engines |
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Use broad and inclusive terms to search subject directories |
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Prefer narrowly defined and unusual terms with search engines |
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Take advantage of advanced search features |
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Keep your eyes and mind open to new services |
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Keep the Internet in perspective |
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Use email as a time-saving resource |
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40 | (3) |
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Pay attention to details in email addresses |
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Be civil, circumspect, and courteous |
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Make your messages easy to read |
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Substitute for italics, if necessary |
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Use word processing to write more efficiently |
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43 | (3) |
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Use automatic formatting to save time and ensure consistency |
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Create tables without the hassle of setting tabs |
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Use special features to handle mathematics |
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Use hidden text for notes |
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Plan ahead to make revisions easier |
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Save your work often, and always make backups |
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Revising with a word processor |
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46 | (7) |
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Use special features to revise material easily on the screen |
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Resist premature cosmetic work |
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Use computerized grammar-checking programs wisely, if at all |
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Use a spellchecker but never entrust it with everything |
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Grammar and style analysis programs |
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Proofread the final version on paper |
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53 | (21) |
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Organize and plan the content |
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53 | (6) |
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To compile possibilities, consider brainstorming (random topic lists) |
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To suggest organization, try clustering (concept maps) |
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To assess balance, develop an issue tree |
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To develop the paper's framework, consider an outline |
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Deal with matters of authorship |
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59 | (3) |
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Discuss authorship before starting the first draft |
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Agree on the order of authors' names |
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Let authorship guide collaboration, and vice versa |
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Understand matters of copyright |
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62 | (1) |
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Determine whether published material is copyrighted |
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Understand how copyright affects your own publication |
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Follow standard structure |
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63 | (6) |
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Introduction-What is the problem and why should anyone care? |
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Materials and Methods-How was the evidence obtained? |
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Results -- What was found or seen? |
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Discussion and Conclusion -- What do these findings mean? |
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The title -- What is the paper about? |
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References -- Who did what? |
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Abstracts and Summaries are different entities |
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Attend to the title page, keywords, acknowledgments, and the rest |
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Approach writing in a way that builds momentum-and keeps it |
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69 | (5) |
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Start in the place that makes sense for you |
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Minimize distractions any way you can |
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Keep the text simple, but somewhat organized |
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When really pressed for time, spend more time on the first draft, not less |
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Write around missing information |
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Recognize the signs of bogging down |
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Deal constructively with writer's block |
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Supporting the Text with Tables and Figures |
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74 | (25) |
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Choose visual aids wisely and use them well |
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74 | (4) |
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Is this illustration really necessary? |
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Choose the illustration that best fits the purpose |
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Suit the illustration to the audience |
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Check journal requirements |
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Make each illustration independent but integral |
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Label illustrations carefully and completely |
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Use tables to present complex data or parallel descriptions |
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78 | (7) |
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Word tables and numerical tables have their place |
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Understand how tables are constructed |
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Understand basic printers' terms |
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Draft concise table titles |
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Help readers make comparisons by organizing tables logically |
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Avoid grossly oversized tables |
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Know when and how to include figures |
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85 | (2) |
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Decide when a figure is appropriate |
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Make figures both independent and indispensable |
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Prepare attractive figures, but beware of ``glitziness'' |
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Pay attention to size and scale |
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Write and position legends carefully |
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Use graphs to promote understanding of numerical results |
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87 | (5) |
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Limit logarithmic and scatter graphs to professional audiences |
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Reveal general relationships with bar graphs |
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Illustrate the relationship of parts to a whole with divided-circle graphs |
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Let pictographs show numerical relationships in a visually symbolic manner |
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Keep graphs visually honest |
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Use documentary illustrations effectively |
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92 | (2) |
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Obtain the best documentation possible |
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Compose the illustration to help the reader |
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Use explanatory artwork effectively |
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94 | (5) |
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Guide readers through sequential processes with algorithms |
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Use traditional drawings to focus on essentials |
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Table and figure format choices |
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Revising Structure and Style |
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99 | (20) |
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Structural changes come first |
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100 | (4) |
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Is the title accurate, succinct, and effective? |
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Does the abstract represent all the content within the allowed length? |
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Does the introductory material set the stage adequately but concisely? |
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Is the rest of the text in the right sequence? |
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Is all of the text really needed? |
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Is any needed content missing? |
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Do data in the text agree with data in the tables? |
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Are the correct references included? |
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Should any of the tables or illustrations be omitted? Restructured? Combined? |
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104 | (10) |
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Consider person and point of view |
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Pay attention to factors that influence readability |
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Strive for sentences of about 20 words |
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Limit average paragraph length |
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Present ideas in expected word order |
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Uncouple long strings of nouns and adjectives |
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Remove unnecessary hedging |
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114 | (5) |
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Omit ``hiccups'' and other needless repetition |
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Shorten modifying phrases and clauses |
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Checking Grammar and Number Use |
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119 | (22) |
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Check for grammatical correctness |
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120 | (9) |
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Decide whether active or passive voice is appropriate |
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Use the active voice unless you have good reason to use the passive |
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Check subject--verb agreement |
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Rewrite sentences with collective nouns and noun phrases |
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Strings of subjects or verbs require special care |
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Deal with dangling participles |
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Dangling participles and other misplaced modifiers |
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Watch the grammar in comparisons |
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Grammatical correctness and consistency are important for lists too |
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Use tense to show the status of the work being discussed |
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129 | (2) |
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Use present tense when a fact has been published |
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Use present perfect tense for repeated events |
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Use past tense to discuss results that cannot be generalized |
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Use past tense for unpublished results |
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Use present tense to refer readers to your figures and tables |
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Treat numbers clearly and sensibly |
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131 | (10) |
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Conservative rules determine when numbers should be spelled out |
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Know when to combine words and numbers |
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Do not start sentences with numerals |
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Prefer Arabic numerals to Roman numerals |
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Use the SI metric system for measurements and weights |
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Know how to express very large and very small numbers |
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Express percentages correctly |
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Report statistics sensibly and accurately |
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Use specialized symbols and notations sparingly and with care |
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Number usage and interpretation |
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141 | (24) |
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Recognize and minimize jargon |
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141 | (5) |
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Watch out for spoken biomedical jargon |
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Watch -ology word endings |
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Avoid coining new words, phrases, or usage |
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If you must use computer jargon, use it appropriately |
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146 | (5) |
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Watch out for commonly misused and confused word pairs |
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Beware of ``which'' and ``that'' |
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Use bias-free, inclusive language |
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151 | (3) |
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Use language inclusively, specifying only those differences that are relevant |
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Be sensitive to group labels |
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Guard against the perception of bias or prejudice |
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Find alternatives to sexist language |
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Handling language sensitively |
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Revise for better verb choice |
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154 | (3) |
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Unmask disguised verb forms |
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Lazy verbs and verbal nouns |
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Special tips when writers and readers have different first languages |
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157 | (8) |
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Address second-language English readers effectively |
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Choose an effective approach when writing English as a second language |
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Distinguish between count nouns and noncount nouns |
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Watch use of definite and indefinite articles |
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Watch gerunds, infinitives, and participles |
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Understand participle use |
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Watch verb forms in conditional sentences |
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Peruse prepositions and prepositional phrases |
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Revising Punctuation and Other Mechanics |
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165 | (25) |
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165 | (7) |
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Insert commas for clarity and emphasis |
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Punctuate the elements of series clearly |
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Identify quoted passages from other texts |
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Know when not to use quotation marks |
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Hyphenation rules are complex and changing |
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172 | (3) |
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Recall proper and common names |
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Capitalize significant words in titles |
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Check journal requirements |
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Know how to treat scientific names |
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175 | (3) |
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Capitalize everything but species and variety |
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Underline or italicize names of the genus, species, and below |
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Make the first mention a comprehensive one |
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Know when and how to include trade names |
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178 | (2) |
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Distinguish carefully between trade names and common names |
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Substitute generic or chemical names whenever possible |
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Cite trade names correctly |
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Watch foreign words and phrases |
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180 | (3) |
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Consider degree of assimilation |
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Prefer English equivalents over Latin and Greek abbreviations |
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Foreign words and phrases |
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Minimize abbreviations, acronyms, and other shortened forms |
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183 | (5) |
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Distinguish between abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms |
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Define shortened forms at first mention |
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Watch the names of geopolitical entities |
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When in doubt, spell it out |
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Practicing mixed corrections: a self-test |
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188 | (2) |
| Selected references |
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190 | (5) |
| Appendix 1. Suggested responses to exercises and self-test |
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195 | (12) |
| Appendix 2. Uniform requirements for manuscripts submitted to biomedical journals |
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207 | (24) |
| Index |
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231 | |
Other versions by this Author