ITS BASIS
1. Vacuum Technology
1.1 Units of Measurement
References
2. Gas Properties
2.1 Kinetic Picture of a Gas
2.1.1 Velocity Distribution
2.1.2 Energy Distribution
2.1.3 Mean Free Path
2.1.4 Particle Flux
2.1.5 Monolayer Formation Time
2.1.6 Pressure
2.2 Gas Laws
2.2.1 Boyle's Law
2.2.2 Amonton's Law
2.2.3 Charles' Law
2.2.4 Dalton's Law
2.2.5 Avogadro's Law
2.2.6 Graham's Law
2.3 Elementary Gas Transport Phenomena
2.3.1 Viscosity
2.3.2 Thermal Conductivity
2.3.3 Diffusion
2.3.4 Thermal Transpiration
References
3. Gas Flow
3.1 Flow Regimes
3.2 Flow Concepts
3.3 Continuum Flow
3.3.1 Orifice
3.3.2 Long Round Tube
3.3.3 Short Round Tube
3.4 Molecular Flow
3.4.1 Orifice
3.4.2 Long Round Tube
3.4.3 Short Round Tube
3.4.4 Irregular Structures
3.4.4.1 Analytical Solutions
3.4.4.2 Statistical Solutions
3.4.5 Components in Parallel and Series
3.5 Models Spanning Molecular and Viscous Flow
References
4. Gas Release from Solids
4.1 Vaporization
4.2 Diffusion
4.2.1 Reduction of Outdiffusion by Vacuum Baking
4.3 Thermal Desorption
4.3.1 Zero Order
4.3.2 First Order
4.3.3 Second Order
4.3.4 Desorption from Real Surfaces
4.3.5 Outgassing Measurements
4.3.6 Outgassing Models
4.3.7 Reduction Baking
4.4 Stimulated Desorption
4.4.1 Electron-Stimulated Desorption
4.4.2 Ion-Stimulated Desorption
4.4.3 Stimulated Chemical Reactions
4.4.4 Photo desorption
4.5 Permeation
4.5.1 Atomic and Molecular Permeation
4.5.2 Dissociative Permeation
4.5.3 Permeation and Outgassing Units
4.6 Pressure Limitations During Pumping
References
MEASUREMENT
5. Pressure Gauges
5.1 Direct-Reading Gauges
5.1.1 Diaphragm and Bourdon Gauges
5.1.2 Capacitance Manometer
5.2 Indirect-Reading Gauges
5.2.1 Thermal Conductivity Gauges
5.2.1.1 Pirani Gauge
5.2.1.2 Thermocouple Gauge
5.2.1.3 Stability and Calibration
5.2.2 Spinning Rotor Gauge
5.2.3 Ionization Gauges
5.2.3.1 Hot Cathode Gauges
5.2.3.2 Hot Cathode Gauge Errors
5.2.3.3 Cold Cathode Gauge
5.2.3.4 Gauge Calibration
References
6. Flow Meters
6.1 Molar Flow, Mass Flow, and Throughput
6.2 Rotameters and Chokes
6.3 Differential Pressure Devices
6.4 Thermal Mass Flow Technique
6.4.1 Mass Flow Meter
6.4.2 Mass Flow Controller
6.4.3 Mass Flow Meter Calibration
References
7. Pumping Speed
7.1 Definition
7.2 Mechanical Pump Speed Measurements
7.3 High Vacuum Pump Speed Measurements
7.3.1 Methods
7.3.2 Gas and Pump Dependence
7.3.3 Approximate Speed Measurements
7.3.4 Errors
References
8. Residual Gas Analyzers
8.1 Instrument Description
8.1.1 Ion Sources
8.1.1.1 Open Ion Sources
8.1.1.2 Closed Ion Sources
8.1.2 Mass Filters
8.1.2.1 Magnetic Sector
8.1.2.2 RF Quadrupole
8.1.2.3 Resolving Power
8.1.3 Detectors
8.1.3.1 Discrete Dynode Electron Multiplier
8.1.3.2 Continuous Dynode Electron Multiplier
8.2 Installation and Operation
8.2.1 Operation at High Vacuum
8.2.1.1.Sensor Mounting
8.2.1.2 Stability
8.2.2 Operation at Medium and Low Vacuum
8.2.2.1 Differentially Pumped Analyzers
8.2.2.2 Miniature Quadrupoles
8.3 Calibration
8.4 Choosing an Instrument
References
9. Interpretation of RGA Data
9.1 Cracking Patterns
9.1.1 Dissociative Ionization
9.1.2 Isotopes
9.1.3 Multiple Ionization
9.1.4 Combined Effects
9.1.5 Ion-Molecule Reactions
9.2 Qualitative Analysis
9.3 Quantitative Analysis
9.3.1 Isolated Spectra
9.3.2 Overlapping Spectra
References
PRODUCTION
10. Mechanical Pumps
10.1 Rotary Vane
10.2 Lobe
10.3 Claw
10.4 Multi-stage Lobe
10.5 Scroll
10.6 Screw
10.7 Diaphragm
10.8 Reciprocating Piston
10.9 Mechanical Pump Operation
References
11. Turbomolecular Pumps
11.1 Pumping Mechanism
11.2 Speed–compression Relations
11.2.1 Maximum Compression
11.2.2 Maximum Speed
11.2.3 General Relation
11.3 Ultimate Pressure
11.4 Turbo Pump Designs
11.5 Turbo Drag Pumps
References
12. Diffusion Pumps
12.1 Pumping Mechanism
12.2 Speed-Throughput Characteristics
12.3 Boiler Heating Effects
12.4 Backstreaming, Baffles, and Traps
References
13. Getter and Ion Pumps
13.1 Getter Pumps
13.1.1 Titanium Sublimation
13.1.2 Nonevaporable Getters
13.2 Ion Pumps
References
14.Cryogenic Pumps
14.1 Pumping Mechanisms
14.2 Speed, Pressure, and Saturation
14.3 Cooling Methods
14.4 Cryo Pump Characteristics
14.4.1 Sorption Pumps
14.4.2 Gas Refrigerator Pumps
14.4.3 Liquid Cryogen Pumps
References
MATERIALS
15. Materials in Vacuum
15.1 Metals
15.1.1 Vaporization
15.1.2 Permeability
15.1.3 Outgassing
15.1.3.1 Dissolved Gas
15.1.3.2 Surface and Near-Surface Gas
15.1.4 Structural Metals
15.2 Glasses and Ceramics
15.3 Polymers
References
16. Joints, Seals, and Valves
16.1 Permanent Joints
16.1.1 Welding
16.1.2 Soldering and Brazing
16.1.3 Joining Glasses and Ceramics
16.2 Demountable Joints
16.2.1 Elastomer Seals
16.2.2 Metal Gaskets
16.3 Valves and Motion Feedthroughs
16.3.1 Small Valves
16.3.2 Large Valves
16.3.3 Special Purpose Valves
16.3.4 Motion Feedthroughs
References
17.Pump Fluids and Lubricants
17.1 Pump Fluids
17.1.1 Fluid Properties
17.1.1.1 Vapor Pressure
17.1.1.2 Other Characteristics
17.1.2 Fluid Types
17.1.2.1 Mineral Oils
17.1.2.2 Esters
17.1.2.3 Silicones
17.1.2.4 Ethers
17.1.2.5 Fluorochemicals
17.1.3 Selecting Fluids
17.1.3.1 Rotary Vane Lobe Pump Fluids
17.1.3.2 Turbo Pump Fluids
17.1.3.3 Diffusion Pump Fluids
17.1.4 Reclamation
17.2 Lubricants
17.2.1 Lubricant Properties
17.2.1.1 Absolute Viscosity
17.2.1.2 Kinematic Viscosity
17.2.1.3 Viscosity Index
17.2.2 Selecting Lubricants
17.2.2.1 Liquid
17.2.2.2 Grease
17.2.2.3 Solid Film
References
SYSTEMS
18. Rough Vacuum Pumping
18.1 Exhaust Rate
18.1.1 Pump Size
18.1.2 Aerosol Formation
18.2 Crossover
18.2.1 Minimum Crossover Pressure
18.2.2 Maximum Crossover Pressure
18.2.2.1 Diffusion
18.2.2.2 Turbo
18.2.2.3 Cryo
18.2.2.4 Sputter-Ion
References
19. High Vacuum Systems
19.1 Diffusion-Pumped Systems
19.1.1 Operating Modes
19.1.2 Operating Issues
19.2 Turbo-Pumped Systems
19.2.1 Operating Modes
19.2.2 Operating Issues
19.3 Sputter-Ion-Pumped Systems
19.3.1 Operating Modes
19.3.2 Operating Issues
19.4 Cryo-Pumped Systems
19.4.1 Operating Modes
19.4.2 Regeneration
19.4.3 Operating Issues
19.5 High Vacuum Chambers
19.5.1 Managing Water Vapor
References
20. Ultraclean Vacuum Systems
20.1 Ultraclean Pumps
20.1.1 Dry Roughing Pumps
20.1.2 Turbo Pumps
20.1.3 Cryo Pumps
20.1.4 Sputter-Ion, TSP, and NEG Pumps
20.2 Ultraclean Chamber Materials and Components
20.3 Ultraclean Pumping and Pressure Measurement
References
21. Controlling Contamination in Vacuum Systems
21.1 Defining Contamination in a Vacuum Environment
21.1.1 Establishing Control of Vacuum Contamination
21.1.2 Types of Vacuum Contamination
21.1.2.1 Particle Contamination
21.1.2.1.1 Volume Particle Contamination
21.1.2.1.2 Surface Particle Contamination: IEST Standard CC1246
21.1.2.1.3 Particle Adhesion
21.1.2.2 Gas Contamination
21.1.2.3 Film Contamination
21.2 Pump Contamination
21.2.1 Low/Rough and Medium Vacuum Pump Contamination
21.2.1.1 Fluid-Sealed Mechanical Pumps
21.2.1.2 Dry Mechanical Pumps
21.2.2 High and UHV Vacuum Pump Contamination
21.2.2.1 Diffusion Pumps
21.2.2.2 Turbo- and Turbo-Drag Pumps
21.2.2.3 Cryo Pumps
21.2.2.4 Sputter-Ion and Titanium-Sublimination Pumps
21.3 Evacuation Contamination
21.3.1 Particle Sources
21.3.1 Remediation Methods
21.4 Venting Contamination
21.5 Internal Components, Mechanisms, and Bearings
21.6 Machining Contamination
21.6.1 Cutting, Milling, and Turning
21.6.2 Grinding and Polishing
21.6.3 Welding
21.7 Process-Related Sources
21.7.1 Deposition Sources
21.7.2 Leak Detection
21.8 Lubrication Contamination
21.8.1 Liquid Lubricants
21.8.2 Solid Lubricants
21.8.3 Lamellar, Polymer, and Suspension Lubricants
21.9 Vacuum System and Component Cleaning
21.9.1 Designing a Cleaning Process
21.10 Review of Clean Room Environments for Vacuum Systems
21.10.1 The Cleanroom Environment
21.10.2 Using Vacuum Systems in a Cleanroom Environment
References
22. High Flow Systems
22.1 Mechanically Pumped Systems
22.2 Throttled High Vacuum Systems
22.2.1 Chamber Design
22.2.2 Turbo Pumped
22.2.3 Cryo Pumped
References
23. Multichambered Systems
23.1 Flexible Substrates
23.2 Rigid Substrates
23.2.1 Inline Systems
23.2.2 Cluster Systems
23.3 Analytical Instruments
References
24. Leak Detection
24.1 Mass Spectrometer Leak Detectors
24.1.1 Forward-Flow
24.1.2 Counter-Flow
24.2 Performance
24.2.1 Sensitivity
24.2.2 Response Time
24.2.3 Testing Pressurized Chambers
24.2.4 Calibration
24.3 Leak-Hunting Techniques
24.4 Leak Detecting with Hydrogen Tracer Gas
References
Symbols
APPENDIXES
A. Units and Constants
A.1 Physical Constants
A.2 SI Base Units
A.3 Conversion Factors
B. Gas Properties
B.1 Mean Free Paths of Gases as a Function of Pressure
B.2 Physical Properties of Gases and Vapors at T = 0°C
B.3 Cryogenic Properties of Gases
B.4 Gas Conductance and Flow Formulas
B.5 Vapor Pressure Curves of Common Gases
B.6 Appearances of Discharges in Gases and Vapors at Low Pressures
B.7 DC Breakdown Voltages for Air and Helium Between Flat Parallel Plates
B.8 Particle Settling Velocities in Air
C. Material Properties
C.1 Outgassing Rates of Vacuum Baked Metals
C.2 Outgassing Rates of Unbaked Metals
C.3 Outgassing Rates of Ceramics and Glasses
C.4 Outgassing Rates of Elastomers
C.5 Permeability of Polymeric Materials
C.6 Vapor Pressure Curves of the Solid and Liquid Elements
C.7 Outgassing Rates of Polymers
C.8 Austenitic Stainless Steels
D. Isotopes
D.1 Natural Abundances
E. Cracking Patterns
E.1 Cracking Patterns of Pump Fluids
E.2 Cracking Patterns of Common Gases
E.3 Cracking Patterns of Common Vapors
E.4 Cracking Patterns of Common Solvents
E.5 Cracking Patterns of Semiconductor Dopants
F. Pump Fluid Properties
F.1 Compatibility of Elastomers and Pump Fluids
F.2 Vapor Pressures of Mechanical Pump Fluids
F.3 Vapor Pressures of Diffusion Pump Fluids
F.4 Kinematic Viscosities of Pump Fluids
F.5 Relation between Oil Temperature, Viscosity and Viscosity Index
F.6 Kinematic Viscosity Conversion Factors
Index
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